Philodemus
(c. 110-c. 40 BCE)
Robert N. Gaines
Philodemus was an Epicurean philosopher and epigrammatic poet.  He was born around 110 BCE in the ancient Syrian town of Gadara (Str. 16.2.29) and studied under Zeno of Sidon (Angeli), while Zeno was Head of the Epicurean School in Athens (c. 110/105-c. 79/78 BCE, Angeli and Colaizzo).  During the seventies, Philodemus migrated to Italy, and about 70 BCE he secured patronage of L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, a Roman Senator (Cic. Pis. 68-70, Asc. Pis. 68; Philippson).  The latest reference in Philodemus' writings may be dated 40 BCE, and he probably died around this date (Gigante 1990).
After arriving in Italy, Philodemus' intellectual activities were evidently centered in the region around Herculaneum and Neapolis.  The former connection is suggested by the significant presence of philosophical works by Philodemus in a library of Greek book-rolls discovered at Herculaneum during 1752-54 (Capasso).  Without these Herculanean papyri, nearly all of Philodemus' philosophical works would be unknown; accordingly most scholars believe that Philodemus was associated with the book collection and the residence in which it was found.  Philodemus' Neapolitan connection is confirmed by his friendship and presumed collaboration with Siro, who led an Epicurean philosophical community in Neapolis (Gigante 1983; Cic. Fin. 2.35).
Most of Philodemus' literary activity may be assigned to his time in Italy.  Of Philodemus' numerous epigrammatic poems (Parsons 1987), about thirty-six survive in the traditional sources of the Greek Anthology  (Sider).  Most of these poems are erotic; the rest are dedicatory, eulogistic, epideictic, protreptic, convivial, and satirical.  Philodemus' poetry received favorable recognition as early as 55 BCE (Cic. Pis. 70).  Along with his participation in the Neapolitan Epicurean community, Philodemus' reputation as a poet brought him personal contact with the finest literary minds in Italy, e.g., Virgil, Plotius Tucca, Varius Rufus, and Quintilius Varus (Gigante and Capasso).  Outside his personal relationships, Philodemus' poetic practice influenced a number of writers, including Catullus, Horace, Tibullus, Propertius, and Martial (Tait). 
Philodemus' philosophical prose corpus was extensive--at least thirty-five treatises--and prosecuted upon many subjects, including history of philosophy, aesthetics, ethics, theology, and logic (see Janko, Gigante 1979).  Among the aesthetic works is Philodemus' On Rhetoric.  A reconstruction of this work was first attempted by Sudhaus, whose edition presented On Rhetoric in seven books.  Sudhaus' reconstruction was subsequently reorganized and much extended by Dorandi (1990b), who used a different seven-book scheme.  Recently, however, Longo Auricchio (1997) discovered that among the papyri which constitute On Rhetoric, P. Herc. 832/1015 contains in its title page the book number "H" (oktô = 8); she also observed that P. Herc. 1669 bears traces of what may be the book number "I" (deka = 10).  In consequence of these findings, On Rhetoric must have contained at least eight books and may have contained as many as ten.  The date of On Rhetoric was formerly assigned to the 70's BCE, because the work refers to Zeno in the present tense in book 2; however, Wisse has recently shown that the present tense need not signify Zeno was alive at the time of reference.  An alternative dating scheme has been proposed by Cavallo based on paleograpical evidence; within this scheme, books 1-3 are assigned to 75-50 BCE, while subsequent books are assigned to 50-25 BCE.  This proposal is attractive, but some scholars advise caution in its application (Parsons 1989).  Consistent with the foregoing, the structure and dating of On Rhetoric remain uncertain.  Nonetheless, On Rhetoric constitutes a rich and unique source for our understanding of rhetoric in relation to the Hellenistic schools of philosophy, especially Epicureanism; it likewise discloses Philodemus' participation in the developments characteristic to rhetorical theory around mid-first century BCE.
Philodemus' Rhetorical Thought
The contents of Philodemus' On Rhetoric--as we now know it--may be summarized as follows.  Book 1 addresses the artistic status of rhetoric and generally characterizes philosophical responses to the problem, not least by certain Epicureans who contradict, so Philodemus says, the position of Epicurean leaders (Epicurus, Metrodorus, and Hermarchus) that sophistic rhetoric is an art (text = Longo Auricchio 1977; Blank).  Book 2 provides detailed critique of various philosophical arguments for and against the artistic status of rhetoric (text = Longo Auricchio 1977; Blank).  Especially featured is Philodemus' defense of Zeno's position that sophistic rhetoric is an art in some sense acceptable to leaders of the Epicurean school.  Essential to argumentation in this book is a distinction of "art" into exact and conjectural types.  Philodemus apparently exploits this distinction to assign conjectural artistic status to persuasive forms of rhetoric (P. Herc. 1674 cols. 5.31-6.19; cf. Cic. de Orat. 1.107-09).  Book 3 opposes the Stoic position of Diogenes of Babylon regarding philosophy, rhetoric, and statesmanship; otherwise, it refutes the view that rhetoric, especially sophistic rhetoric, creates expertise in statesmanship (text = Sudhaus; Arnim; Hammerstaedt; Dorandi 1992).  Book 4 disputes claims by rhetoricians and sophists concerning rhetorical style, delivery, arrangement, and invention, as well as forensic, deliberative, and epideictic speaking (text = Sudhaus; Longo Auricchio 1982; Gaines 1985a, 2001; Dorandi 1988, 1990a).  Philodemus' discussion emphasizes style and delivery over arrangement and invention (cf. Cic. Orat. 43-50, 51-236).  Regarding style, he prefers naturally beautiful expression, rejecting expression conceived as beautiful according to an arbitrary determination.  Delivery, arrangement, and invention all depend in part on other disciplines, especially invention, since rhetors--as practitioners of rhetoric--are incapable of finding or judging arguments on subjects other than rhetoric (Gaines 1985b; cf. Cic. de Orat. 1.20, 48-50, 53, 60).  Philodemus' comments on forensic and deliberative speaking are cursory; however, he vigorously critiques sophistic theory and practice of epideictic speaking, insisting that sophists do not have the moral knowledge or practical insight to praise and blame successfully.  Book 8 discusses the rhetorical theories of Nausiphanes and Aristotle (text = Sudhaus; Longo Auricchio 1993, 1994).  Philodemus criticizes Nausiphanes' claim that training in natural philosophy creates good speakers.  He also denounces Aristotle for teaching rhetoric and admitting politics into philosophy. Of the books with uncertain numbers, that constituted by P. Herc. 1004 offers criticism of the view that rhetoric is useful and treats several positions that compare rhetoric with philosophy (text = Sudhaus; Cappelluzzo).  One position belongs to an Ariston (his identity is uncertain), another to Diogenes of Babylon, and a third position may represent a Peripatetic philosopher (cf. Hubbell).  The remaining book--possibly numbered 10--comprises P. Herc. 220, 473, 1078/1080, 1118, 1669, 1693 (Dorandi 1990b) and offers further comparisons of rhetoric with philosophy (text = Sudhaus; Ferrario 1974, 1980, 1988).  Philodemus pursues these comparisons in response to multiple arguments that elevate rhetoric and denigrate philosophy.  Ultimately Philodemus says that while many evils arise from rhetorical persuasion, philosophy teaches everything that contributes to happiness.
Reception
Cicero used Philodemus' On Piety in composing his own De natura deorum; among later writers, Philodemus' philosophical corpus is cited by Diogenes Laertius and perhaps by St. Ambrose (Philippson, Obbink). 
Bibliography
Abbreviations: CErc  = Cronache Ercolanesi; Cicéron et Philodèm = Cicéron et Philodème: La polémique en philosophie. Études de littérature ancienne, 12. Ed. Clara Auvray-Assayas and Daniel Delattre. Paris: Éditions Rue d'Ulm/Presses l'École normale supérieure, 2001; ZPE = Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik
Primary Sources
Angeli, Anna.  Filodemo. Agli amici di scuola (PHerc. 1005). La scuola di Epicuro, 7.  Napoli: 
Bibliopolis; 1988.
Angeli, Anna and Maria Colaizzoa.  "I frammenti di Zenone Sidonio." CErc 9 (1979): 47-133.
Arnim, Ioannes ab, ed.  Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Lipsiae: Teubner, 1903.  240-43.
Cappelluzzo, Maria Giustina. "Per una nuova edizione di un libri della Retorica Filodemea 
(PHerc. 1004)." CErc 6 (1976): 69-76.
Dorandi, Tiziano. "Appunti sul PHerc. 468." ZPE 91 (1992): 47-49.
---. "Due 'edizioni' del IV libro della Retorica di Filodemo." ZPE 81 (1990a): 33-35.
---. "Fragmenta Herculanensia inedita." ZPE 71 (1988): 43-46.
Ferrario, Matilde. "Per una nuova edizione del quinto libro della 'Retorica' di Filodemo." 
Proceedings of the XVIII International Congress of Papyrology: Athens, 25-31 May 
1986. Ed. Basil G. Mandilaras.  Athens: Greek Papyrological Society; 1988.  167-84.
---. "Frammenti del quinto libro della Retorica di Filodemo (PHerc. 1669)." CErc 10 (1980): 55-
124.
---. "Verso una nuova edizione del quinto libro della 'Retorica' di Filodemo." CErc 4 (1974): 93-
96.
Gaines, Robert N. "Textual Notes on Philodemus, Peri rhêtorikês, Book IV." Hermes 113 
(1985a): 380-81.
Hubbell, Harry M., trans. The Rhetorica of Philodemus. Transactions of the Connecticut 
Academy of Arts and Sciences 23 (1920): 243-382.
Hammerstaedt, Jürgen. "Der Schlußteil von Philodems drittem Buch über Rhetorik." CErc 22 
(1992): 9-117.
Janko, Richard, ed., comm., and trans. Philodemus, On Poems, Book 1. Oxford: Oxford UP, 
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Longo Auricchio, Francesca. "Nuove letture nel PHerc. 1015 (Filodemo, Retorica, libro 
incerto)." CErc 24 (1994): 109-110.
---. "Nuove letture nei frammenti del PHerc. 1015 (Filodemo, Retorica, libro incerto)." CErc 23 
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---. "Frammenti inediti di un libro della Retorica di Filodemo (PHerc. 463)." CErc 12 (1982): 67-
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---, ed and trans. Philodêmou Peri rhêtorikês, Libros primum et secundum. Ricerche sui Papiri 
Ercolanesi, 3. Napoli: Giannini, 1977.
Obbink, Dirk, ed., comm., and trans. Philodemus, On Piety, Part 1.  Oxford: Clarendon P, 1996.
Parsons, P. J. "List of Epigrams." The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 54 (1987) no. 3724.
Sider, David. The Epigrams of Philodemus. New York: Oxford UP, 1997.
Sudhaus, Siegfried, ed.  Philodemi Volumina Rhetorica.  2 vols. & Supplementum.  Lipsiae: 
Teubner, 1892-96.
Biography
Philippson, Robert. "Philodemos (5)."  Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen 
Altertumswissenschaft 19.2 (1938): cols. 2444-82.
Tait, Jane Isabella Marion. Philodemus' Influence on the Latin Poets. An Arbor: Edwards, 1941.
Criticism
Blank, David. "La philologie comme arme philosophique." Cicéron et Philodème, 241-57.
Capasso, Mario. Manuale di Papirologia Ercolanese. Galatina: Congedo, 1991.
Cavallo, Guglielmo. Libri scritture scribi a Ercolano. Primo supplemento a CErc 13, Napoli: 
Macchiaroli, 1983.
Dorandi, Tiziano. "Per una ricomposizione dello scritto di Filodemo sulla Retorica." ZPE 82 
(1990b): 59-87.
Gaines, Robert N. "Philodemus and Cicero on Models of Rhetorical Expression." Cicéron et 
Philodème, 259-72.
---. "Philodemus on the Three Activities of Rhetorical Invention." Rhetorica 3 (1985b): 155-63.
Gigante, Marcello. Filodemo in Italia.  Bibliotechina del saggiatore, 49.  Firenze: Felice Le 
Monnier, 1990.
---. "Virgilio fra Ercolano e Pompei." Atene e Roma 28 (1983): 31-50.
---, ed. Catalogo dei Papiri Ercolanesi.  Napoli: Bibliopolis, 1979.
Gigante, Marcello and Mario Capasso. "Il ritorno di Virgilio a Ercolano." Studi Italiani di 
Filologia Classica, 3d ser. 7 (1989): 3-6.
Longo Auricchio, Francesca. "New Elements for the Reconstruction of Philodemus' Rhetorica." 
Akten des 21. Internationalen Papyrologenkongresses, Berlin 1995.  Archiv für 
Papyrusforschung, Beiheft 3 (1997): 631-35.
Parsons, P. J.  Rev. of Libri scritture scribi a Ercolano by G. Cavallo.  Classical Review 39 
(1989): 358-60.
Wisse, Jakob. "The presence of Zeno: The date of Philodemus' On Rhetoric and the use of the 
'citative' and 'reproducing' present in Latin and Greek." On Latin: Linguistic and Literary 
Studies in Honour of Harm Pinkster.  Ed. Rodie Risselada, Jan R. De Jong, and A. 
Machtelt Bolkestein. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1996.  173-202.
(1800)